In these digitized surroundings, we should not overlook the use of three-dimensional (3D) printing in forensic odontology, for investigative or court purposes, which is still comparatively new. We will use the term “3D printing” as it is widely recognized and will perhaps be the simplest phrase for the odontologist for daily use. Alternative terms are additive manufacturing and rapid prototyping. Today, 3D printing is most commonly used in dentistry for the manufacture of drill guides for dental implants, study models for prosthodontics, orthodontics and surgery, the manufacture of dental, craniomaxillofacial and orthopedic implants, and the fabrication of copings and frameworks for implant and dental restorations. However, we are yet to see forensic odontologists, lawyers, and expert witnesses appreciate embrace the advantages of 3D printing for its use in court of law. This may be due to a perception of it being complicated technology, high cost, or simply a lack of understanding of what can be done with 3D printing. 3D image capture devices minimize the amount of angular distortion, therefore such a system has the potential to create more robust forensic evidence for use in courts and medico-legal cases. The major application of 3D printing in forensic odontology includes bite mark analysis, 3D-computed tomography facial reconstruction, dental age estimation, sex determination, and physical models. The aim of this review article is to outline the use and possible benefits of 3D printing in forensic odontology.

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Forensic odontology has been emerging as a major branch of the forensic science as an identification aid. Teeth by its resistant nature to degradative forces offer us an identification tool. Virtual autopsy is a virtual dissection of the human body through imaging to analyze the internal aspects of the body. This article speaks on the applications of virtual autopsy in forensic science.

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Forensic odontology is a branch of dentistry which deals with the appropriate handling and examination of dental evidence which help in identification of person and presentation of dental findings in the interest of justice. It is concerned with the application of science and technology in human identification, requiring the coordinated efforts of a multidisciplinary team. Determining the racial affinity of an unknown individual from dentition for identification is indeed a difficult endeavor. However, there are some dental characteristics which are predominant in one of racial groups, and these contribute important indicators in the identification process. Forensic anthropologists most often provide details of bone studies, but forensic dentists can assist in the process. The determination of sex and ancestry can be accessed from shape and form of the skull, especially from skull appearance. Forensic dentists can determine race within the three major groups: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid. Additional characteristics of teeth, such as cusps of Carabelli, shovel-shaped incisors, and multicusped premolars, can also assist in the determination of ancestry.

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Aim: To assess the knowledge and attitude toward forensic odontology dentists in Chennai City. Objectives: To evaluate knowledge about forensic odontology among general dental practitioners. Materials and Methods: A study was conducted among 200 general dental practitioners. A questionnaire was distributed among them. Background: Forensic odontology includes the proper handling, examination, and evaluation of evidence related to dental findings which can be used for personal identification. It is dependent on the detailed knowledge of the teeth and jaws which is only possessed by a dentist. The survey was conducted with the aim to assess the awareness of forensic odontology in Chennai. Results: Many of the general dental practitioners had a basic knowledge about forensic odontology, but only 27% knew about Indian Association of Forensic Odontology. Sixty-nine percent of them were not confident about giving an opinion for a forensic case. Sixty-three percent of them knew about cheiloscopy. Many of them did not know the importance of identifying child abuse as a dentist. Sixty-nine percent of them said they would inform the parents if they identified a child abuse case. Nineteen percent of them did not maintain dental records and among the remaining only 30% maintained complete dental records. None of them had any formal training related to forensic odontology. Two percent of them only knew about the forensic courses available in India. Most of them felt that our country has very limited resources for forensic odontology. Conclusion: Forensic odontology has an important role in the recognition of person. Forensic odontology requires interdisciplinary knowledge of dental science. This survey shows that general dental practitioners in Chennai have inadequate knowledge and interest in forensic odontology.

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Background and Aim: Age estimation is one of the indicators employed to identify an individual in forensic sciences. Teeth are frequently used as they can be preserved for long time even after many of the tissues have disintegrated. The radiological techniques of age estimation such as Kvaal's and Cameriere's are simple, noninvasive, and reproducible. These are less time-consuming and do not necessitate extraction. Hence, a study was conducted to evaluate and compare the accuracy of Kvaal's and Cameriere's methods for dental age estimation using panoramic radiographs. Materials and Methods: Panoramic radiographs of 120 patients within the age group of 20–60 years, reporting to the Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology over a period of 3 years were selected from the archives of database based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Radiographs of patients were divided according to age into four groups with an interval of 10 years, each group comprising of 30 individuals (15 males and 15 females). The mandibular cuspid, first bicuspid, and second bicuspid on either left or right side were selected for analysis as these teeth are not likely to undergo wear and tear. The required measurements were performed using Adobe Photoshop CS5 for both the methods. Results and Conclusion: The data were subjected to Pearson's correlation analysis, Stepwise linear regression analysis, Student's unpaired t-test, ANOVA, and Bonferroni post hoc analysis. Kvaal's method was found to be ideal compared to Cameriere's method to predict age. The best tooth to be considered for predicting age using Kvaal's method was found to be tooth number 34.

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Introduction: Bite marks are often observed at crime scenes on various parts of the human body. Bite marks have also been observed on various edible leftovers at the crime scenes which were used as evidence for identifying the criminals. Objective: The objective of the study is to compare the accuracy of bite marks on an inanimate substance (fruit) and a living tissue (skin) using digital analysis. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 25 volunteers. The registered bites of individuals on inanimate object (fruit) and living tissue (skin of forearm) were photographed with the American Board of Forensic Odontology scale No. 2 in the view field immediately after the production of bite marks. Dental casts of the individuals were obtained and photographed out of which computer-assisted overlays were generated, and analysis was carried out digitally using Adobe Photoshop version developed by Adobe Systems. Statistical analysis was performed using IBM SPSS software, version 22 and Chi-square test. Results: Skin had a comparable accuracy to that of an inanimate object which is statistically attested. Conclusion: The source of bite marks, the substrate onto which they are generated and the technique of lifting the bite imprints serve as important tools in analysis.

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Introduction: In the Asia Pacific region, because of variation in topography and climatic conditions, India is a disaster-prone country. The identification of an individual is one of the most important aspects of forensic medicine. There are different methods for identification of a person's age and gender. However, there are relatively fewer methods to estimate the stature of an individual. Stature correlation to skull and jaw dimensions is less frequently reported. The aim of the study is to investigate the relationship between height of the person and diameter of the head (DH) and circumference of the head with the combined mesiodistal (MD) width of maxillary anterior teeth using minimum and easily available armamentarium. Materials and Methods: Fifty model casts of students were considered to measure the MD width of the anterior teeth along with the circumference of the head and DH (distance from glabella to inion) with the help of a nonstretchable measuring tape. Heights of the students were recorded in inches. All the findings were tabulated and statistically analyzed. Observations and Results: When combined MD width of the maxillary anterior teeth was plotted against height, a statically significant correlation was seen. When head circumference was plotted against height, a higher correlation was seen. When two measurements were added and plotted against height, improved elevated correlation was seen. Similarly, when the MD width was added to circumference of the head and DH, a greater correlation was observed. Conclusion: It can be safely concluded that with more data to prove the study, a formula can be drawn to estimate the height of the person using MD width of the anterior teeth, DH, and circumference of the head.

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Background: Establishing the identity of an individual by analyzing the teeth has being a matter of interest in forensic odontology. Dental morphometrics is useful in establishing physical profile of the individual at various stages in forensic studies. Tooth dimensions of both deciduous and permanent teeth can be correlated to various aspects of the facial and physical characteristics of an individual. Aims and Objectives: The present study was undertaken to investigate the relationship between clinical crown length (CL) of erupted deciduous and permanent teeth and the height of child and adult, respectively. An association between these two parameters, if any, was evaluated to derive a numerical equation that would predict the individual's height from tooth dimensions. Materials and Methods: Sixty adults (30 males and 30 females) of age range 18–26 years and sixty children (30 males and 30 females) of age range 3–6 years were included in this study. Clinical CL of the permanent teeth (tooth numbers 11, 12, 13, 16, 17) and deciduous teeth (tooth numbers 51, 52, 53, 54, 55) was measured on the subject cast models using digital Vernier calipers. Using a standard measuring tape, individual height (H) was also measured. Ratios (CL/H) of permanent tooth CL to individual height and deciduous tooth CL to the child height were documented. Using linear stepwise forward regression analysis, the probability of CL of the study group teeth that would most likely predict physical height of the child and adult was determined. Results: Statistical analysis showed strong correlation between the two parameters among children and adults. In permanent dentition, tooth CL of #12 permanent upper right lateral incisor (among the combined group of males and females) was statistically significant in the prediction of the adult height. Mathematically derived equation for adult height prediction using #12 CL based on linear stepwise forward regression analysis (derived from combined data of male and female samples) is 941.286 + 82.146 (#12 CL); in deciduous dentition, (#55) upper right second molar among the males, (#52) upper right lateral incisor among females, and (#53) upper right canine among the combined male and female group were statistically significant and predicted the child height with minimal variations. Equations derived for male child height prediction (using data of male children) is 660.290 + 72.970 × (#55CL), for female child height prediction (using data of female children) is − 187.942 + 194.818 × (#52 CL), and for child height prediction using #53 CL (using combined data of male and female children) is 400.558 + 90.264 × (#53 CL). Conclusion: There exists a definitive relation between vertical CL of teeth and the height of an individual. This relation is more predictive with teeth numbers 12 in adults and 52, 53, 55 in children. This information is of immense value in identification profiling in forensics.

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Knowingly or unknowingly children in the age group of 5-12 years of age are at a risk of various forms of child abuse, one among which is dental neglect. Dental neglect is one of the least recognized problems, yet it is a very serious problem. This review article is written with the aim to emphasize the role of dentists in reporting the child abuse cases and to counsel the parents/caretakers of the children regarding the seriousness of the issue.

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Introduction: Age determination can be done by assessing the developmental and eruption status of dentition in the oral cavity. Schour and Massler studied the development of human dentition radiographically and histologically and put forward a chart explaining the stages of both deciduous and permanent teeth development in 21 stages. This chart is used in this study to estimate the age in the study population. Aim: The aim of the study was to check the efficacy of Schour and Massler method in determining the age of the study population using Schour and Massler chart of teeth development. Methodology: This study comprised of 62 panoramic images, taken from the department of oral medicine and radiology archives. Age was assessed by comparing the tooth developmental stages on panoramic radiographs with the standards using Schour and Massler chart. To check the accuracy of the present method, the actual age of the samples was matched with the dental age (DA) estimated by Schour and Massler method. Results: Data were statistically analyzed using paired t-test and correlation was done. It showed a strong correlation between the actual age and DA by Schour and Massler method. Conclusion: Schour and Massler method is a reliable method for age estimation in the study population.

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Aim: This study aimed to analyze retrospectively the prevalence, etiology and location, and age and gender distribution of maxillofacial (MF) fractures in the Western part of Maharashtra population. Materials and Methods: Previous records of 1190 patients were evaluated by the observers who had undergone extraoral radiography and occlusal radiography for any diagnostic or treatment purposes between the years 2009 and 2014 were evaluated by the observers. Results: Between the years 2009 and 2014, a total of 2109 MF fractures and associated injuries were collected in 1190 patients and analyzed. Out of the 1190 patients, 697 were male and 493 female. The most commonly affected age group was between 30 and 40 years followed by 20–30 years. The prevalence of road traffic accidents (RTAs) was highest followed by fall, physical assault, sports, and miscellaneous. Conclusion: This study concluded that RTAs were the major cause of fractures. Most fractures occurred in the age group of 31–40 years. Frequency of mandibular fractures was more than midfacial fractures. These findings will be helpful for appropriate health-care policy and management setup in every society.

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Personal identification is a vital task in any crime scene investigation where there is a scarcity of biological evidences, and their chances of contamination and degradation are also high if they are not collected and preserved properly. However, cheiloscopy is one of the investigational techniques which rely on lip prints for human identification based on the anatomy and morphology of lips. Fischer in 1902 described the concept of grooves on upper and lower lips for the first time and later in 1932, it was recommended by Locard. Lip prints are considered very significant for personal identification and also prove to be an analogous to fingerprints. Moreover, lip prints do not change with time, therefore they could be useful for identification of a person, whether dead or alive. Due to the characteristic feature of uniformity throughout the life, these can be used to establish the presence or absence of a person in crime, provided that the person has left the lip marks on exhibits such as glasswares, clothing, tissues, and napkins. The scarcity of literature on cheiloscopic studies for personal identification shows that little research has been carried out so far within the forensic community. Previous cheiloscopic studies show that no study has been carried out to individualize a deceased person, which can be utilized in mass disasters apart from criminal cases. Therefore, the present review divulges the importance of cheiloscopy in the identification of living as well as deceased persons, which could be an innovative technique in the history of forensic science.

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Age is an important factor for all the human beings whether it is living or dead. It is useful for day-to-day life works such as educational purpose, governmental purpose, job purpose, medical purpose, crime investigation, court of law, clinical practices, research, and reconstructive identification purpose in case of dead individuals. Of many procedures for age estimation such as chronological age, bone age, mental age, and others, dental age estimation is considered to be an important procedure as tooth development shows less inconstancy than other developmental features or in relation to chronological age and also teeth are most tough and resilient part of the skeleton. High survivability of teeth exposed to severe physical factors, such as fire and water immersion, make assessment of developing teeth the method of choice in forensic age estimation. Age estimation using teeth can be divided into three categories of age groups: prenatal, neonatal, and early postnatal period; children and adolescents; and adults. Children are defined as the human beings from birth to puberty and adolescents as from puberty to approximately age of 20 years. Hence, the motive is to overview for dental age estimation in children and adolescents from different techniques.

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"Dead men do tell tales” – William R Maples Identification of the dead is an integral part of obtaining justice, where crime is concerned and to provide closure to bereaving families. Various identification techniques have been developed to assist in identification of remains, especially using radiographs. This review aims at delving into the use of frontal sinus as an aid in the identification process, the pros and cons, and the future of this parameter in the field of identification.

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Forensic odontology is the investigative part of dentistry that applies dental principles to legal issues that analyses dental evidence for human identification. Sex determination is a subdivision of forensic odontology, and it is very important, especially when information relating to the deceased is unavailable. The compilation and critical reading are necessary to understand the role of forensic odontology expert with regard to sex determination using dental records. This article reviews upon the various methods used in sex determination in forensic odontology.

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Background: Forensic odontology utilizes the dentist's knowledge to serve the judicial system. It has itself as an important indispensable science in medicolegal matters and in particular in personal identification, gender determination, and age estimation. It plays an important role in mass disasters, child abuse, bioterrorism, etc. Taken together, forensic dentistry has become one of valuable tools worldwide to be used in identification processes. Objective: To evaluate the knowledge about forensic odontology among the students of a dental institution. Methodology: A cross-sectional study was conducted among final year, interns, and postgraduate students of JSS Dental College and Hospital, Mysuru. A self-administered, structured questionnaire written in English and validated through a pilot survey was given to all available and willing student participants. Questionnaire included significance of dental records, dental age estimation, identification of child abuse and individuals bite marks, as a witness in the court, lip prints along with the demographic data. Results: In the present study, 67% of the participants responded that DNA comparison was the most accurate method for person identification. About 27.3% responded tooth dimension and tooth morphology was the most accurate method of dental age estimation in elderly. Moreover, 89.1% reported their present knowledge level/awareness about forensic dentistry was not adequate. Conclusion: Forensic odontology must be introduced into the BDS curriculum effectively as a separate subject so that the students get well acquainted with the required knowledge for handling the medicolegal cases in their future practice.

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Objective: Radiographs of the frontal sinus have been used in personal identification due to its uniqueness configuration. Largely there has been little agreement regarding the reliability of frontal sinus in gender determination. This study was performed to verify the dependability of radiomorphologic features of the frontal sinus in the assessment of sexual dimorphism. Methodology: A total of 100 paranasal radiographs were evaluated for sexual dimorphic features including number of scallops on the sinuses' superior border, unilateral/bilateral presence or absence of partial septa, number of partial septa, and unilateral/bilateral presence or absence of supraorbital cells. Results: Application of discriminative analysis to the data accurately identified the gender in merely 65.7% of cases. Conclusion: Therefore the radiomorphologic features of frontal sinus alone have limited value in gender determination and may be used as an auxiliary method.

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Background: Medical professionals are important in treating and management of victims of mass disasters, abuse, and organized crimes. Although the forensic odontologist has a pivotal role in the investigation, health-care provider in the emergency medicine should have the potential to detect, inform, and interact with the dentist for further applications in legal issues. We aimed to conduct the present study on the knowledge, awareness, and attitude among the medical students. Materials and Methods: With informed consent, we conducted a cross-sectional study among 194 4^th-year medical students. A structured questionnaire consisting of 17 items relating to forensic odontology to assess the knowledge, awareness, and attitude among medical students and data were collected and reviewed. Results: On analyzing the collected data of 194 participants, the percentage of participants who knew: the meaning of forensic odontology, forensic odontology a part of forensic medicine, and role of forensic odontology in the criminal analysis were 172 (87%), 192 (99%), and 181 (93%), respectively. A total of 183 (94%) were aware of bite mark patterns, 171 (88%) would examine for bite marks in child abuse, 89 (46%) the lip prints, DNA as accurate and sensitive method of comparison and teeth as source of DNA was 128 (66%) and 122 (63%), respectively. A total of 127 (65%) agreed that forensic odontologist as experts, 101 (52%) had opted for dental evidence, and 139 (72%) had agreed that postmortem unit should include a dental laboratory facility. However, only 79 (41%) knew the tooth as the choice of evidence in mass disaster. 101 (52%) stated dentist as expert witness. The awareness of the role of teeth in age and gender estimation was 147 (76%) and 79 (41%), respectively. Forty-nine (25%) had handled forensic dentistry case in emergency medicine and importance of maintaining dental records were known to 85 (44%). Conclusions: Medical students had inadequate knowledge of forensic odontology. As a health-care provider, medical professionals should understand the implications of forensic odontology.

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Background: Age determination in mass disaster is an important information that helps to identify the individual. Exfoliative cytology is one of the noninvasive techniques with minimal expenditure, which allows simple and pain-free collection of intact cells from different layers within the epithelium for examination. The present study uses exfoliative cytology smears from buccal mucosa, to estimate the age-related changes to guide the investigators for correct identification of unknown human bodies. Aim and Objective: The aim of the study is to estimate the age of an individual from buccal smears. Materials and Methods: Buccal smears were taken from 50 healthy individuals and analyzed for cellular and nuclear perimeter, using Dewinter's image analysis software (Version 4.3) using one-way ANOVA and Bonferroni method. Results: There was a statistically significant reduction in the size of the cell with the age of the individual (P = 0.000). Nuclear size reduces with increasing age but was not consistent. NP:CP ratio increased with advancing age. Conclusion: The cell size is a more reliable parameter to assess the age of the individual.

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Introduction: Vital pulpotomy is defined as the surgical amputation of the coronal portion of exposed pulp followed by the placement of medicament over the remaining radicular pulp thereby maintaining the vitality of the remaining radicular pulp. Aim and Objective: The aim of this study was to compare clinically and radiographically the success rate of formocresol (FC) and electrosurgical pulpotomy in human primary teeth. Materials and Methods: In this study, thirty primary molars between 3 and 8 years of age were taken from the Outpatient Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry. Teeth were randomly divided into two groups of fifteen teeth each based on type of pulpotomy performed (15 receiving electrosurgical pulpotomy and 15 receiving FC pulpotomy). Under rubber dam isolation, pulpotomy was performed in both the groups and teeth were restored with stainless steel crowns. The patients were recalled at 3, 6, and 9 months for clinical and radiographic follow-up. The data were evaluated using Chi-square test. Results: Statistical analysis showed no significant difference between the two groups (P > 0.05). The overall clinical success of FC was 100%, whereas that of electrocautery was 96% at 3-, 6-, and 9-month follow-up. The overall radiographic success of FC was 100%, 93%, and 93% and that of electrocautery was 97%, 87%, and 77% at 3, 6, and 9 months, respectively. The teeth considered as failures were subjected to further treatment. Conclusion: There was statistically no significant difference in the pre-operative clinical and radiographic features between the two groups with the p>.05 as statistically analysed using chi-square test. Further studies using larger samples and longer evaluation periods are recommended.

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Background: Forensic science often uses the skeletal, dental remains as sources for human identification. Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between males and females of the same species. This study is designed to compute a new formula for sex determination using discriminant function analysis in the deciduous crown dimensions of a paediatric population of Erode district. Methodology: The sample consisted of 146 females and 218 males of South Indian origin aged between 3 and 5 years. Alginate impressions of the upper and lower dental arch were made and casts were poured immediately. A digital vernier calliper was used to obtain measurements. Teeth considered for measurement were all deciduous teeth. Statistical analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science version 21.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Results: By using the Student t-test, the different predictor variables of teeth selected between male and females were found to be significant (P < 0.05). Significant sexual dimorphism was found in Lower canine Bucco lingual (LCBL), Upper central incisor Bucco lingual (UCIBL), Upper 2nd molar Bucco lingual (UM2BL) and Upper lateral incisor Distal (ULIMD). Conclusion: The formula derived from the present study could be of great value in sex determination of paediatric populations of Erode district.

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Introduction: Palatal rugae are the ridges on the anterior part of the palatal mucosa, present on each side of the median palatal raphe and behind the incisive papilla also. Various studies on different populations reported the unique ruga patterns within each population, which have a significant role in personal identification. Aim: The aim of the present study is to determine the different patterns and number of rugae in north Indian and North-East Indian populations. Material and Method: The sample size of the study includes 120 students aged 18–24 years and was divided into two groups comprising sixty north Indian and sixty North-East Indian students, respectively, based on population, with equal gender (thirty males and thirty females in each group) distribution. The variation in rugae pattern was analyzed according to Thomas and Kotze classification. Results: The results of the present study show that there was a significant difference present in the number of rugae in north and North-East Indian populations, with P = >0.05. The predominant shape observed was sinusoidal which was significantly higher in North-East Indian population comparative to North Indian population. Conclusion: It may be concluded that the ruga pattern may be an additional method of differentiation between the north Indian and North-East Indian populations. A larger multi-ethnic study could be undertaken to validate this claim among various cross ethnic groups.

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With the advent of new technologies being integrated into varied aspects of dental care through visual, photographic, and radiological evidences in clinical diagnostics, these aspects are yet to be involved in forensic sciences. This is despite the availability of the technological advances in today's clinical settings. This review discusses the feasibility of integration of virtual autopsy in forensic odontology practice in an Indian setting. Using high-tech radiological approaches, virtual autopsy provides an efficient and more accurate view on cases such as thanatological investigations, carbonized and putrefied body identifications, mass disaster cases, age estimation, anthropological examinations, and skin lesion analyses. In certain cases, the postmortem photographic and radiological examination becomes essential as the access to the oral cavity is hindered. These become feasible with the advent of availability of antemortem radiological digital formats stored in hospital settings, with the improved collection of data compared to the traditional techniques. However, we do not have any state and national level protocols and laboratories to augment the capabilities further. Virtual autopsy is likely to replace conventional autopsies in the future. Thus the century-old investigation system in our country can be upgraded by the utilization of this Modern Technology. This review advocates a multidisciplinary research and advocacy to develop improved tools and protocols for virtual autopsy and to stress the role of forensic odontologists in an Indian setting.

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One of the major roles of the forensic odontologist in identification is age estimation. There are a wide range of methods available in literature for age estimation. Methods have been tested on different populations, modified, and remedied. Contradictions and discrepancies between researchers often occur when the same method is applied and gives different results. There are a lot of factors leading to these discrepancies, mainly the lack of standardization of methods and procedures. However, this can be challenging because of differences in population ethnicity. Irrespective of these drawbacks, accuracy and reliability still need to be maintained. This article aims to review the limitations of various techniques used in forensic odontology, challenges faced as well as future recommendations.

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Cheiloscopy has been fascinating from the time it took a prominent place in the field of forensic dentistry. This article aims at a review tracing the cheiloscopic studies conducted worldwide. It highlights the results achieved of each research work, and focus is made on the effect of the same. Cheiloscopy and dermatoglyphics with its various applications have immense potential, which are not fully explored till date, and it is necessary to channel the resources of cheiloscopy in a proper channel and henceforth maximum scientific benefit can be achieved with the same.

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